
^5 



<L- 









PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN PERU 



BY 



ALBERT A. GIESECKE, Ph.D. 
ii 

Rector of the University of Cuzco, Cuzco, Peru 



Publication No. 635 

Ambrican Acadbmy op Political and Social Science 

Reprinted from The Annals, May, 191 x 



Price 25 cents 






/?// 






This Reprint is made from the May, 1911, volume of THE 
ANNALS, the complete contents of which are 

INDIVIDUAL EFFORT IN TRADE EXPANSION. 

Hon. Elihu Root, United States Senator from New York. 
THE FOURTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE 
AMERICAN STATES. 

Hon. Henry White, Chairman of the American Delegation to 
the Fourth International Conference of the American 
States. 
THE FOURTH PAN-AMERICAN CONFERENCE. 

Paul S. Reinsch, Delegate to the Fourth Pan-American Con- 
ference; Professor of Political Science, University of Wis- 
consin. 
THE MONROE DOCTRINE AT THE FOURTH PAN-AMERICAN 
CONFERENCE. 

Hon. Alejandro Alvarez, Of the Chilean Ministry of Foreign 
Affairs, Santiago, Chile. 
BANKING- IN MEXICO. 

Hon. Enrique Martinez-Sobral, Chief of the Bureau of Credit 
and Commerce of the Mexican Ministry of Finance. 
THE WAY TO ATTAIN AND MAINTAIN MONETARY REFORM 
IN LATIN-AMERICA. 
Charles A. Conant, Former Commissioner on the Coinage of 
the Philippine Islands, New York. 
CURRENT MISCONCEPTIONS OF TRADE WITH LATIN- 
AMERICA. 

Hugh MacNair Kahler, Editor of "How to Export"; Vice- 
President, Latin-American Chamber of Commerce; Pub- 
lisher of the Spanish periodicals, "America" and "Inge- 
nieria." 
INVESTMENT OF AMERICAN CAPITAL IN LATIN-AMERICAN 
COUNTRIES. 
Wilfred H. Schoff, Secretary, Commercial Museum, Philadel- 
phia. 
COMMERCE WITH SOUTH AMERICA. 
PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN PERU. 

Albert A. Giesecke, Ph.D., Rector of the University of Cuzco, 
Cuzco, Peru. 
THE MONETARY SYSTEM OT CHILE. 

Dr. Guillermo SubercasV>aux, Professor of Political Economy, 
University of Chile. 
THE SOCIAL EVOLUTION OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 

Hon. Ernesto Quesada, Attorney-General of the Argentine Re- 
public; Professor in the Universities of Buenos Ayres and 
La Plata. 
COMMERCIAL RELATIONS OF CHILE. 

Hon. Henry L. Janes, Division of Latin-American Affairs, De- 
partment of State, Washington. 
CLOSER COMMERCIAL RELATIONS WITH LATIN-AMERICA. 

Bernard N. Baker, Baltimore, Md. 
IMMIGRATION— A CENTRAL AMERICAN PROBLEM. 

Ernst B. Filsinger, Consul of Costa Rica and Ecuador, St 
Louis, Mo. 



Price $1.50 bound in cloth; $1.00 bound in paper. Postage free. 



Lf\5 c i<0 



PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN PERU 



By Albert A. Giesecke, Ph.D., 
Rector of the University of Cuzco, Cuzco, Peru. 



There can be little doubt that the greatest problem confronting 
Peru to-day is the organization and extension of public instruc- 
tion. 1 The country is in a fair way towards settling its boundary 
controversies, with the possible exception of the Tacna and Arica 
question pending with Chile. Hence the boundaries need no longer 
be the central theme of discussion and agitation by the large 
majority of Peruvian citizens. 

As a background for the discussion of the educational problem 
in Peru, it seems expedient to state briefly some of the obstacles 
which impede rapid progress to the best interests of education. In 
the first place, the physiography of the country merits consideration. 
With an area approximately one and a half million square kilometers, 
and a country practically divided into three, more or less, inde- 
pendent sections, Peru is severely handicapped in carrying on the 
functions of government. The coastal region extends along the 
western part of the Republic, in a strip averaging less than a hun- 
dred miles in width. It is generally devoid of rainfall the year 
round. It occupies about ten per cent of the area of the republic. 
The "Sierra" or mountainous region lies to the eastward, and is the 
seat of the plateaus and high peaks of the Andes. Roughly speak- 
ing, it occupies about twenty-five per cent of the area of the repub- 
lic. The mountains are largely responsible for the climatic condi- 
tions of the country. Still farther to the east is an immense tract 
of land, exceedingly rich in flora and fauna. It occupies almost two- 
thirds of the area of the country, and, with the exception of two 
or three small districts, is practically unknown. Located in the 
upper regions of the Amazon basin, it is a land of present surprises 
and of great promise for the future. At present it is sparsely set- 
tled, and, indeed, inhabited in part by an uncivilized race. 

»I hereby desire to acknowledge the courtesy of several persons who have so 
kindly supplied me with the necessary data, all of which is of an official character. 
I refer to Dr. Matias Leon, Ex-Minister of Instruction ; Dr. H. E. Bard, Adviser to 
t'e Minister of Instruction ; Dr. Justus Perez Figuerola, Director-General of Instruc- 
tion : Mr. Aurelio Gamarra y Hernandez, Chief of the Bureau of Secondary and 
Higher Education, and Dr. Vincente Delagado, Chief Statistician of the Department 
of Instruction. 

(66 3 ) 






86 The Annals of the American Academy 

The second obstacle to the rapid development of a rational 
educational system may be considered under the social organization 
of the country. As in the United States, there is a great mixture 
of races. The main distinction in a comparison between the two 
countries, however, lies in the fact that in the former country the 
white element predominates, numerically considered, whereas in 
the latter, the Indian, or Cholo, element, i. e., the descendants of 
the Incas, comes first. Most of the white, and mestizo, or mixed 
white and red blood, is found along the coast. It is the center of 
influence of the Spaniard. The other two regions are settled chiefly 
by the mestizo element. The negro element is also present, and is 
concentrated chiefly in the coastal region. Allowing for exceptions, 
there is naturally a difference in the intellectual capacities of these 
race mixtures. This difference comes out more clearly in an in- 
vestigation of the location and work of secondary and higher insti- 
tutions of learning, which are concentrated chiefly in the coastal 
region. Yet this region has only about twenty-five per cent of the 
three and a half million inhabitants of the country. More might be 
added with reference to the influence of climate, racial assimilation 
and the effects of Spanish colonization upon the social organization, 
but none of these presents insurmountable obstacles to the advance- 
ment of public instruction. 

Political drawbacks also exist, and they are most in evidence in 
affecting the administration of the public schools of the country. 

Peru has a cabinet or ministerial form of government, — as in 
France. The Minister of Justice, Instruction and Religion, who is 
one of the six Ministers of State, has charge of public instruction. 
Under the minister is a director-general of public instruction — a 
position which was created last January. 2 The Director-General 
therefore has all the administrative work of public instruction in 
his hands. Under him are the following chiefs at the head of their 
respective bureaus. These include the chief of secondary and higher 
education ; of the personnel and general administration, an import- 
ant post under the present organization ; of equipment and sup- 
plies ; of statistics ; and archives. Aside from these bureaus under 

"Previously there was a Director-General of Justice, Public Instruction and 
Religion, but by decree that of Public Instruction has been established separately. 
Legally the work of secondary and higher education was left in the hands of thia 
Director, and primary education in the hands of another Director. 

(66 4 ) 



Public Instruction in Per'u 87 

the director-general, the minister has an expert adviser in matters 
appertaining to educational administration. Concerning the present 
organization it would seem highly desirable to make the work of 
all of these officials free from political influence, except that of the 
minister. There is also a Superior Council of Education, but it has 
had a rather checkered career. It has been suggested that there 
be a separate minister for education, but there are two sides to 
this question. 3 

The constitution of Peru guarantees the existence and diffu- 
sion of primary instruction, which shall be free and obligatory. 4 
The present law of public instruction, primary, second and higher 
instruction, was passed by Congress in 1901 ; the portion dealing 
with primary instruction was remodeled in December, 1905. Upon 
these two laws are based numerous executive decrees, amplifying 
the system of public instruction. 

Primary Instruction 
Elementary education is obligatory for boys between the ages 
of six and fourteen, and for girls between the ages of six and twelve. 
Primary schools are of two classes: (1) elementary; (2) "centros 

s It will be noted that Teru has been securing (for some years) from time to 
time from Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, and other European countries, teachers 
for the national colegios. The ciuties of these teachers have been confined entirely 
to teaching in these schools, or in a few instances to directing them. It was 
only a year ago that it was realized there was need of well-trained and experienced 
men in the administrative branch of education. Dr. Manuel V Villaran, who had 
made a thorough study of the educational situation (Revista Universitaria, 
Ano III, Vol. II, No. 23, pp. 1-21, and No. 24, pp. 105-130, Sept. and Oct., 1908), 
upon being called to the Cabinet with the portfolio of Justice, Instruction, and 
Religion, decided to engage from the States, a director general and four departmental 
instructors of primary instruction, and a director and number of special teachers 
for the national colegios and for normal instruction. 

Dr. Villaran's plans were only partially carried out when a change of Cabinet 
brought to the department of instruction a new Minister, who did not find himself 
entirely in sympathy with the plans of his predecessor. Before this time, however, 
four of these men were on their way to rvru. They were men especially pre- 
pared, by practical experience as well as by large academic and professional training, 
for the work they were to do. They are now rendering important service of an 
administrative character, the full value of which will receive recognition only 
in time. Dr IT. E. Bard, who is adviser to the Minister of Instruction, bad for 
some years before coming to Tern given special attention to the administrative 
sciences., and particularly to the science of educational administration. He had 
had valuable practical experience also in this field in the Philippine Islands. Some 
far-reaching reforms have already been effected through his initiative. It Is 
expected that the work of these men will demonstrate the need of others like 
them, and in this way will one of Tern's greatest educational needs be met. 

'Article 24. See Constitution of Latin-American Republics published by the 
International Union of American Republics. 

(665) 



88 



The Annals of the American Academy 



escolares," or literary school centers. Kindergarten schools are 
also provided in two or three instances. The elementary schools 
take up the studies of the first two years' work of primary educa- 
tion. From the following curriculum it will be seen that in these 
two years reading, writing, arithmetic, the metric system, notions of 
geography and history of Peru, the Christian doctrine and physical 
exercises are provided. The executive decree of June 20, 1906, 
makes a conscious effort to provide primary education in a com- 
prehensive way, but in practice the results have not been perfectly 
satisfactory. The curriculum for the five years of primary 
instruction follows : 



First Year 


Second Y 


ear 


Third Year 


Fourth Year 


Fifth Year 


1. Reading 


Heading 


and 


Reading and 


Reading and 


Reading and 


and writing 


writing 




writing 


writing 


writing 


2. Arithmetic 


Arithmetic 




Composition 


Composi t i o n, 


Composition and 








and gram- 


grammar 


grammar 








mar 






8. Object les- 


Notions 


of 


Arithmetic 


Arithmetic, In- 


Arithmetic 


son (plants, 


geog ra p h y 




cluding met- 




human body, 


with special 




ric system 




colors, sea- 


reference to 








sons, with 


Peru 










drawings of 












objects where 












possible) 












4. Christian 


History 


of 


Geography, 


Geography of 


Geography o f 


doctrine 


Peru 




with special 


Peru and the 


eastern hemi- 








reference to 


rest of Amer- 


sphere 








Peru 


ica 




5. Games and 


Object lessons 


History of 


History of 


History of Peru 


singing 


(as in 
year) 


first 


Peru 


Peru 




6. 


Principal 


dut- 


Notions of 


Physics 


Physics 




ies of 


man 


Physics 








(labor, 


sav- 










inc. electoral 










obligations. 










military 


ser- 










vice, truth, 










cleanlin 


e s-s, 










etc.) 










7 


Games 
singing 


and 


Notions of 

chemistry 


Chemistry 


Chemistry 


8. 






Natural his- 
tory 


Natural his- 
tory 


Natural history 


0. 






Notions of 


Notions of 


Notions of agri- 








agriculture 


agriculture 


culture 


10. 






Notions of 


Notions of 


Notions of arbori- 








arbor 1 c u 1 - 


arbor 1 c u 1 - 


culture 








ture 


ture and 
horticulture 




11. 






Manual labor. 


Manual train- 


Manual training, 








geometry 


ing, geome- 


geometry and 








and draw- 


t r y and 


drawing 








ing 


drawing 




12. 






Music 


Music 


Carpentry (In 
boys' schools) 


13. 






Christian doc- 
trine 


Ethics 


Music 


14. 






Physical train- 
ing and no- 
tions of hy- 
giene 


Physical train- 
ing 

Notions of 
hygiene 


Ethics 

Physical training 
and hygiene 



(666) 



Public Instruction in Pen 89 

Selecting at random one or two of the subjects provided for, 
we may get an idea of the breadth of the course of studies, which 
is not however carried out in practice under present conditions. In 
the fourth year, the course in chemistry presumably includes a study 
of the air, combustion, hydrogen and oxygen, water, chlorine, sul- 
phur, phosphorus, carbon, notions of chemical nomenclature, acids, 
bases, salts. The fifth-year course in arithmetic includes mental 
operations, the decimal system, prime numbers, maximum and 
minimum divisor, proportion, metric system, weights, measures and 
money systems, bookkeeping, commercial documents. 

Executive decrees provide for the division of the country into 
sixty school districts, for the purpose of primary education, 
although previously there were over one hundred school districts. 
In each of these districts is an inspector who sees that the school 
regulations of the central government are carried into effect. There 
is an exception in the case of Lima and Callao, where two inspectors 
are provided, one for boys' schools, the other for girls' and mixed 
schools. 5 

In the past the inspectors have not always proved efficient, 
visiting the schools infrequently, and knowing or caring little about 
the requirements of their position. Consequently, there has been 
a recent decree providing qualifications which may result in a better 
system of inspection. The new decree, however, has one serious 
defect in that it requires the inspector to telegraph the fact of his 
intended visit to the director-general in Lima and to the sub-prefect 
of the province which he expects to visit. By this means the school 
authorities may secure advance notice, and be prepared. An in- 
spector will now be required to have (1) a degree (bachelor, or 
diplomas from the normal school), (2) the inspectors now in office 
must take an examination within ninety days to prove their compe- 
tence, otherwise new inspectors are to be appointed. 6 Furthermore, 
the Minister of Public Instruction has another check on the work 
of the schools in the special inspectors (visitadores) who may be 

The latest decree is dated January 22, 1910. 

•Executive decree of January 22, 1010. The previous decree provided for 
departmental, provincial and district inspectors. The present plan, therefore, 
according to the claims of its advocates, effects an economy in the number of in- 
spectors, increases their efficiency, reduces the amount of official routine, and saves 
money. 

(66 7 ) 



90 The Annals of the American Academy 

appointed from time to time by the minister in order to make special 
investigations. 

In general, at least one elementary school, giving the work of 
the first two years of primary instruction, must be established for 
every two hundred inhabitants. The departmental capital must have 
at least two primary schools — one for boys, the other for girls ; the 
provincial capital must have at least one primary school even if the 
population should not be large enough. Public schools are estab- 
lished by decree. 

The last annual report of the Minister of Instruction shows that 
the number of schools in actual operation, school year 1907, was 
2,262, or about one hundred less than there should have been. Of 
these over ninety per cent gave instruction for the first two years 
of primary education only — 840 were for boys, 677 were for girls, 
and 745 were mixed schools for boys and girls. Instruction was 
given to 161,660 pupils during the year, two-thirds of whom were 
boys, and only 5,450 of these received instruction in the upper 
classes of the primary school. The average daily attendance was 
about sixty per cent. With the pupils in private schools, less than 
one-fifth of a million of children were receiving primary education 
throughout the Republic. 7 This appears to be a small proportion 
for a population estimated at more than 3,500,000 inhabitants. 8 

The following table will furnish the details : — 

Receive Do not receive Could 

instruction instruction read 

Boys ... 65,536 164,794 73,778 

Girls . . 34,478 151,736 41,273 



Could 


Could 


Could 


not read 


write 


not write 


156,609 


50,615 


179,726 


144,884 


28,285 


157,918 



Total 100,814 316,530 115,051 301,493 78,900 337,644 

A census of school children within the age limits 9 for the purpose 
of primary education was made in 1902. 10 

According to racial distribution there were 67,928 white chil- 
dren, 198,674 indigenous or native children, 144,298 mestizos and 

'Annual Report of the Minister of Instruction for 1908, Vol. II, pp. 333-337. 

s The last general census was taken in 1876, but doubts have been enter- 
tained about its accuracy. At that time there were 2,700,000 inhabitants. Par- 
tial censuses, etc., led to the estimate given above. The coastal region has about 
one-fourth of this total, the Andean region about five-eighths, and the eastern 
region the rest. — A. Garland, Peru in 1906 (2d edition), pp. 100-101. 

"Including 75,000 from the ages of 4 to 6, i. e., children who could attend 
a kindergarten school. 

10 Censo Escolar de la Republica Peruana correspondiente al afio 1902. 

(668) 



Public Instruction in Peru pi 

5,644 blacks. Unfortunately it is impossible to make comparison 
of this data by the three physiographic divisions, since it is given 
only for the twenty-one departments of the Republic. For the de- 
partment of Lima, which includes the capital and a few small towns 
and plantations, there were 11,038 whites, 26,664 indigenous or 
native, 12,468 mestizos, and 2,432 blacks. In a way, therefore, Peru 
has its racial problem to settle, from the educational point of view, 
just as we have in the United States. It would seem plausible that 
the introduction of American teachers and American methods, from 
sections where the education of mixed races is prominent, should be 
carefully considered by the government of Peru. 11 

The teachers in the primary schools are women in the majority 
of cases. Although supposed to have a diploma, the majority of 
teachers are not so provided. 12 Thus, out of 2,944 teachers, 1,225 
men, 1,719 women, two-thirds did not possess a diploma. 

At present there are three normal schools — one for men and 
two for women. Two are located in Lima, and a comparatively 
smaller one for women in Arequipa. Previously there were more, 
but financial and other difficulties have caused the closing of the 
others. The act of Congress (March, 1901) provided at least three 
normal schools for men, and three for women. In the normal school 
for men the curriculum provides three years of study, which differs 
somewhat from that provided for the women's normal school. In 
the normal school for women in Lima the course of studies is as 
follows: First year: Spanish grammar and literature, penmanship 
arithmetic, geography, history, religion, object lessons, domestic 
economy and hygiene, manual training, French or English, vocal 
music, physical exercises, attendance upon model classes in the 
School of Practice. Second year : general notions and anthropology 
and infant psychology, pedagogy, history, general hygiene, domes- 
tic economy, religion, elocution and composition, manual training. 
French or English, music, physical exercises, attendance upon model 
classes in the School of Practice. Third year : Methodology, notions 
of the history of education, school hygiene, domestic economy, civic 
education and school legislation, manual training, French or English, 

"q. v. La Educacion Nacional (6rgano de la Direcci6n de Primera Ensefianzn). 
May, 1904, pp. 199. 205. Last year the government of Tern sent for some Ameri- 
can teachers and superintendents of schools. This policy should doubtless be 
carried out on a larger scale to attain the best results. 

"Report of the Minister of Instruction (1908), Vol. II p 334 

(669) 



92 The Annals of the American Academy 

music, physical exercises, daily teaching in the School of Practice, 
pedagogical conferences. The courses at the normal school for 
women in Arequipa are most limited. 

The government pays all expenses of most of the pupils in the 
normal schools in Lima, and in exchange requires them to teach in 
the primary schools of the respective departments from which the 
students come for a certain number of years. They are guaranteed 
a minimum salary per month for this work. 13 During the school 
year 1907 the men's normal school had fifty-three students, the 
women's normal school in Lima forty-four and in Arequipa, sixty- 
three. 14 A total of about $100,000 was expended during 1906 for 
salaries, equipment and other expenses, and twenty-five students 
were graduated. These figures fairly represent the work of preced- 
ing years. 

Revenue and Expenditure for Primary Education 

The Minister of Instruction has the portfolios of Justice and 
Religion in addition to that of Education. Consequently, the con- 
gressional appropriations for the Department of Education form 
only a part of the revenues and expenditures which he controls. 
Nevertheless, to insure at least a certain amount of revenue which 
would not depend entirely upon the action of Congress, a law was 
passed providing special sources of income. All told, the revenues 
for primary instruction are derived from the following sources: (a) 
A special tax, or mojonazgo, on alcoholic drinks and mineral water, 
insofar as money from this source does not furnish more than fifty 
per cent of the total revenue of any municipality; (b) local taxes 
created by special acts of Congress; (c) special funds and revenues 
from property; (d) thirty per cent of the departmental revenues, 
deducting from this the subventions assigned to secondary instruc- 
tion, on the basis of the departmental appropriation of 1905 ; (e) five 
per cent of the national revenues ; (/) fines imposed for infractions 
of the law and decrees relating to primary instruction. In 1906 
these revenues amounted to $1,150,775; in 1907 they were slightly 
higher; in 1908 they amounted to $1,309,090. Owing to the eco- 
nomic crisis, the sum voted by Congress for 1910 has been reduced 

"Decrees of April 4, 1907, and January, 1910. 

"Report of the Minister of Instruction (1908), Vol. II, p. 338. 

(6 7 0) 



Public Instruction in Peru 93 

considerably, so that less than a million dollars were available this 
year. 

Some Defects in the System of Primary Education 
As late as i860, Dr. Francisco Calderon, in his excellent 
Diccionario de la Legislacion Peruana, stated that the country still 
felt the lamentable consequences of the repressive system of educa- 
tion which had been provided by the Spanish government during 
the colonial period. 15 Although most of these consequences have 
disappeared to-day, some still remain. A temporary decree bearing 
on public instruction had been promulgated in 1855— the first gene- 
ral decree up to that time. It remained in force until 1876, 
although attempts had been made in the meanwhile to change it. 
By the latter decree, issued March 19, the system of public instruc- 
tion was decentralized, especially as regards primary instruction. 
The departmental authorities were intrusted with secondary, the 
municipal councils with primary education, i. e., so far as the finan- 
cial powers were concerned. The directive body was a Superior 
Council of Public Instruction. It soon became evident that the local 
authorities did not, or would not, provide suitable funds, and mat- 
ters went from bad to worse. Under these circumstances Congress 
enacted a law in 1901 centralizing the administration to a large ex- 
tent — a work which has been carried out more thoroughly by the 
act of 1905, for the central government was given full control of 
public instruction. 16 

The majority of the reports of the Ministers of Instruction 
throughout this period, aside from the question of administrative 
centralization, emphasize the importance of primary education. 
Yet almost invariably these same reports state that primary educa- 
tion was in a condition far from satisfactory. The complaints 
usually take the form of lack of money, lack of schools and equip- 
ment, dearth of suitable teachers, and the need of better salaries, 
and more punctual payment of teachers. Thus, in his report for 
1893, the Minister of Instruction pleads for a broader basis of prim- 
ary education in accordance with the Constitution, and complains 
of the comparatively large sum spent for secondary and higher 

"Vol. II, p. 324. 

"Exposiclon sobre el Estado de la Instrucci6n Pfiblica en el Pert envlado 
al Congreso Pan-Americano de Chile, pp. 4-6. 

(671) 



94 The Annals of the American Academy 

education, when the majority of the children of the country did not 
even know how to read or write ; when many of the provinces did 
not have teachers, nor school buildings, nor any income for the most 
indispensable equipment. He blamed these conditions largely upon 
the decentralized system of administration. 17 Unfortunately, the 
defects which existed under the decentralized system of administra- 
tion have by no means disappeared. With several exceptions, they 
are just as glaring as before. The main defects lie in the administra- 
tion itself, and the lack of sufficient funds to carry out a progressive 
program of reforms. The administrative machinery needs remodel- 
ing, but should undoubtedly remain centralized. The financial prob- 
lem is considered very serious at present, but even here there is 
room for improvement in the expenditure of the money voted by 
Congress for schools. The State could really spend profitably five 
times the sum voted for this year. It would then be in a much bet- 
ter position to carry out the provision of the Constitution providing 
obligatory primary education. 

This applies with added force to the education of girls by 
public authority. As one prominent Peruvian writer puts it : "So 
long as the intellectual and social level of the family is not raised, 
by the education of the mother, our people will forge ahead very 
slowly. That task, the realization of which is of national import- 
ance, belongs to man, who should make it a reality. Women cannot 
at one and the same time attempt the problem, propose the remedy, 
and bring to pass the miracle. The task belongs to man. The surest 
way is to multiply the centers of instruction and provide for the 
better education of woman." 18 

Secondary Education: Administration and Curriculum 

Secondary education is under the direction of the Minister of 
Instruction. Outside of Lima the prefect of the department acts 
for the Minister. The act of 1901 forms the ground work upon 
which is based the present decree relating to secondary education. 
Until this school year (March 1, 1910, to February 28, 191 1), the 

"Page xxv. Cf. also report for 1891, page xli ; 1892, pp. 23, 26, 30 ; 1S94, 
p. xxxv, etc. 

"Elvira Garefa y Garcia. Tendencias de la Edueacfon Feminina, p. 37 
This report was presented to the Pan-American Congress of 1908. Cf. also article 
by L. S. Rowe In report of U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1909, pp. 326, 327. 

(6 7 2) 



Public Instruction in Peru 95 

decree of March, 1904, was in force. It regulated the curriculum 
and gave in general outlines the subject matter to be taught in each 
course. Beginning with this year the following curriculum has 
been introduced by the decree of January 29, 19 10: 

First Tear Hrs. Second Year Hrs. Third Tear ITrs. Fourth Tear Hrt 

Spanish 4 Spanish 4 Spanish 3 Spanish literature.. 3 

Modern languages . 3 Modern languages . 3 Modern languages . 3 Modern languages . . 2 

1 istory 3 General history ... 3 General history 2 General history ... 3 

General geography Geography of Europe Geography of Amer- History of Peru ... 2 

and geography of and Africa 2 ica and Oceanica. 2 

Asia 2 

A rithmetic 5 Arithmetic 1 Algebra 2 Philosophy 5 

Zoology 3 Algebra 2 Geometry 2 Civics 1 

Religion 1 Geometry 2 Geology and mineral- Trigonometry 1 

ogy 2 

Penmanship 1 Botany 3 Physics 3 Thysiology and anat- 
omy 1 

Drawing 2 Religion 1 Chemistry 3 Physics 3 

Music 1 Penmanship 1 Drawing 2 Chemistry 2 

Physical exercise ...2. Drawing 2 Music 1 Drawing 2 

Music 1 Physical exercise . . 2 Physical exercise . . 2 

Physical exercise . . 2 

Total hours 27 27 27 27 



The principal changes over the previous curriculum, and some 
of them are undesirable changes, include fewer hours devoted to 
the study of modern languages, and more hours to philosophy, 
which was added to the studies of the fourth year, physical exer- 
cise, and the exact sciences. Prior to 1904, secondary education was 
given in a six-year course. The change to four years was based 
in large part upon the French reforms of I902. 19 Although the de- 
crees have provided the full course of studies in secondary education, 
it has not always followed that each year's work has been given in 
full in each colegio. 

Last year the government had also approved a plan of com- 
mercial education for Guadalupe Colegio, which I had the honor to 
formulate. It gives the student a chance to get secondary education 
which will put him more in harmony with his economic environment. 
There is great need for such education owing to the unusually large 
proportion of those who enter upon professional careers — law, medi- 
cine, engineering. Commercial education must occupy an exceed- 
ingly important position in the educational problem of all Latin- 
American countries during the next two decades. Commercial 
sections have already been established in several other colegios since 

"Exposicion sobre el estado de la Instruccion Publica en el Peru, p. 19. 

(673) 



96 



The Annals of the American Academy 



then. The plan of studies for the commercial department at Guada- 
lupe Colegio includes the following: 20 



First Tear Hrs. 
Spanish and com- 
mercial correspon- 
dence 4 

English 5 

Outlines of general 

history 4 

Arithmetic 5 

Geography (physical 

and general) .... 4 
Natural history .... 4 

Penmanship 1 

Physical exercise . . 2 

Total hours 29 



Second Tear Hrs 
Spanish and com- 
mercial correspon- 
dence 4 

English 4 

French (or German 

or Quechua) ... 2 
Commercial arith- 
metic and algebra 4 

Bookkeeping 3 

Commercial products 
with chemical ex- 
periments 3 

Penmanship 1 

Shorthand and type- 
writing 7 

Physical exercise . . 1 

29 



Third Year Hrs 

Spanish literature. . 3 

English 3 

French (or other 
languages) con- 
tinued., 3 

History of Peru and 
neighboring coun- 
tries 3 

Geometry 3 

Bookkeeping 3 

Com'l geography . . 4 

Physics 3 

Shorthand and type- 
writing 4 



29 



Fourth Tear Era. 
Spanish literature.. 2 

English 3 

Other languages 

(continued) .... 3 
History of commerce 
and modern in- 
dustrial history. . 3 
Commercial arith- 
metic 2 

Chemistry 5 

Civil government 
and notions of 
commercial law.. 3 
Political economy... 3 
Shorthand and type- 
writing 3 

27 



The present law on secondary education (1901) provides two 
types of schools — the colegio and the liceo. The work of the for- 
mer can be determined by referring to the curriculum already given. 
The colegio was intended to be a stepping-stone to higher education. 
The liceo was intended to provide instruction adapted to agriculture, 
commercial education and mining and mechanical arts, "in order 
that pupils might acquire the knowledge indispensable for dedicating 
themselves to industries dependent on those branches of instruction." 
Colegios were to be established in places where universities were 
located, and in departmental capitals at the discretion of the Supe- 
rior Council of Public Instruction. Liceos, according to the law, 
were to be established in provincial capitals (101 provinces in Peru) 
by the same Council. As yet liceos have not been established, nor is 
there any likelihood of such action taking place. The course of 
studies was to be formulated by the Council as the basis for an 
executive decree, and instruction in the colegio or the liceo was to 
last six years. No plan of studies could be modified during a period 
of five years. Yet by decree of 1904, the course of studies was cut 
down to four years in the colegio, the only institutions of secondary 
instruction in existence, and the amount of work per year in- 
creased. Whatever advantages may have been produced by cutting 
down the course to four years, this action illustrates one of the 
defects from which the educational work suffers. I refer to the 



•"Decree of January 29, 1910. 



(674) 



Public Instruction in Peru 97 

plethora of decrees introduced by rapidly changing ministers. 
Some of the decrees, moreover, are evidently a violation of the spirit, 
if not the letter, of the laws of Congress. 

The Director and the Professors 

In each colegio and liceo the law of 1901 made provision for a 
director, a sub-director, a secretary, the professors, inspectors, and 
the office personnel. The director is supposed to have received a 
university degree, but this provision is not always enforced. He is 
expected to reside in the colegio. He is responsible for the carrying 
out of laws and other regulations ; for the discipline of the school ; 
for the work of the employees ; for the proper accounting of the 
revenues of the school ; for the calling of faculty meetings ; and 
for the annual report showing certain details with reference to 
matriculation and examination of students, equipment, etc. The 
sub-director has to do more directly with discipline, and aids the 
director. He is also expected to live in the school building if there 
are any students boarding at the institution. 

The professors are classed as full professors and assistant 
{ad junto) professors. The former may hold their position for ten 
years as a result of a competitive examination — a position which 
may be made permanent if the professor has written a meritorious 
scientific work within this limit. The Superior Council of Pub- 
lic Instruction decides on the merits of the case. Less than a dozen 
positions of this type exist to-day, in a total teaching staff for all 
national colegios of more than 400. The appointment of professors 
is by the Director, or by the government directly — depending on the 
subjects to be taught. Salaries are by no means uniform in the 
colegio. Moreover, many professors simply teach part of the time 
in a national colegio and devote the rest of their time in private 
colegios or engage in other work. Complaints have been made on 
this score, as well as regards the salary, which may be said to aver- 
age about five dollars per month for one hour of instruction per 
week. The ad junto professors simply replace the regular profes- 
sors in case of absence of the latter. 

Quite a number of foreign teachers, chiefly German, Belgium 
and Swiss, have been teaching in the national colegios during the 
last three or four decades. It must be added, however, that they are 

(675) 



98 The Annals of the American Academy 

by no means looked upon with favor by the native teachers. The 
professor is aided by inspectors in maintaining discipline in the 
class-room. This system of discipline has its counterpart in few 
educational codes of other countries ; it certainly does not offer any 
real advantages. 

Students in Secondary Institutions 

The school age of pupils attending the colegios is presumably 
from thirteen to seventeen. The former decree rquired the pupils 
to have completed the twelfth year, but in practice this has not 
always been insisted upon. The new decree requires pupils of the 
first year to be between the ages of twelve and fifteen. Admission 
to the colegio may be by examination, or upon satisfactory comple- 
tion of primary instruction. The latter method prevails almost 
entirely. 

There were twenty-eight national colegios in Peru in 1908 with 
a total of 3,289 pupils. The largest and most important by far is 
Guadalupe Colegio, in Lima, with over five hundred pupils. In 
fact this colegio serves as the model for the others, and has a 
building costing all told about half a million dollars. In 1904 there 
were twenty-three colegios with a total of 2,041 pupils. Only three 
of the national colegios are for girls, with a total of about 200 
pupils. These three colegios are located in Cuzco, Ayacucho and 
Trujillo. Supplementing the national colegios are the private cole- 
gios, located chiefly in Cuzco and Lima, and directed by the church, 
or as business ventures. These private colegios numbered thirty- 
four in 1908, of which twenty were for boys, and fourteen for girls. 
The number of boys who attended totaled 1,016, of girls, 275. 

The law provides that pupils may board in the colegio. The 
maximum number of such pupils is determined by the Superior 
Council of Public Instruction, according to the law, but not in prac- 
tice. Many pupils, both in national and private colegios, take 
advantage of this provision of the law. 

The expense of a pupil in Guadalupe Colegio may be taken as 
representative. The charges here include the following: Matricula- 
tion fee, $1 ; for annual examinations, $2 ; tuition, $20 per year, for 
pupils in the primary grades which happen to be given in this colegio, 
and for the first two years of secondary instruction, and $30 for the 

(676) ' 



Public Instruction in Peru 99 

last two years of secondary instruction; board and lodging for the 
year, $105 ; fees for the use of equipment, $3 ; although third- and 
fourth-year students pay $2.50 additional for the use of the labora- 
tories. Laundry charges, for those who care to avail themselves of 
the opportunity amount to $1.50 per month. In 1909 Guadalupe 
Colegio provided board and lodging for 175 pupils, and in addition 
board for over 200 additional pupils. This year the number was 
almost doubled, owing to extensions and improvement to the 
building still under way. 

Practically each department gives scholarships to a limited 
number of pupils, many of whom are sent to Guadalupe Colegio. 
Such a scholarship provides all tuition and living expenses. 

The students are not accustomed, as a general rule, to do much, 
if any, school work at home. School hours are from 8 to n in the 
morning, and 1 to 5 in the afternoon, six days per week. As the 
curriculum provides less than thirty hours of class-room work, the 
other hours are utilized for study, physical training and military 
drill. Irregularity of attendance on the part of pupils, and even of 
professors, is one of the marked defects of administration which 
merits rigorous corrective measures. 

Examinations and Prices 

Mention must be made of the system of prizes existing in all 
branches of education — public as well as private. Medals, books and 
other useful objects are distributed for the meritorious at the close 
of the school year. The annual exercises correspond to our high 
school commencement, only here the exercises come at the close of 
the year. The prefect of the department, or in Lima, the Minister 
of Instruction, and perhaps even the President, and other school 
authorities, attend the exercises at the national colegio. 

The system of examinations is worthy of special attention. At 
the close of each of the four years there is an examination in each 
subject in the official program of studies. The term work counts 
one-third of the general average. The written examination, usually 
lasting less than one hour, counts, one-third ; and the oral exami- 
nation, usually five to ten minutes for each pupil, the other third. 
For national colegios, special examining boards of three members 
each are appointed by the Director. The professor of the class 

(677) 



ioo The Annals of the American Academy 

acts as president of the board. For private colegios whose pupils 
desire to present themselves for the examination in accordance with 
the official program, three special examining boards are appointed 
by the government. For Lima, they are appointed by the Minister ; 
for the departments by the prefects. These boards examine in let- 
ters, sciences, and languages respectively. It was my privilege to act 
as president of the last mentioned board for Lima during 1909. 
The examining boards for private colegios receive a fee for 
every student who is examined, regardless of whether he presents 
himself, or whether he passes the examination. For national col- 
egios one copy of the marks is sent to the Minister of Instruction ; 
for private colegios one is sent to the Minister, one is left in the 
colegio itself, and the third is sent to the national colegio of the 
department in which the private colegio is located. The examining 
boards for private colegios are also required to prepare a report for 
the Minister relative to the pedagogical conditions existing in each 
colegio which has been visited. This board can only examine in the 
colegios which have previously sent to the Minister a request for 
such examination, including in this request the list of students who 
are to be examined. Practically all private colegios do this. A 
method of examination somewhat similar prevails in the universi- 
ties. The system is not only cumbersome and time-consuming but 
in the public schools at least it is subject to log-rolling methods. 
Moreover, the actual examinations — oral and written — need modi- 
fication. Even more serious defects might be noted as regards 
the examinations for private colegios. A competent national exam- 
ining board, or perhaps even several departmental boards, should 
provide uniform examinations based on the official curriculum. 

Income and Expenditures 

The income of national colegios consists ( 1 ) of the sum voted 
by Congress; (2) any sum voted by the department; (3) special in- 
come assigned to a colegio; (4) fees of students; (5) rent from 
property owned by the school — usually insignificant. The budget 
of each colegio is made up toward the close of the school year by an 
Economic Council. This council consists of the Director, the treas- 
urer, a professor of the colegio and two fathers whose sons are 
attending the school. The council meets several times during the 

(678) 



Public Instruction in Peru ioi 

year to consider financial matters of the colegio, and towards this 
end it is generally convened by the Director. 

For the twenty-eight colegios in 1908, the total income 
amounted to $310,000, about twenty-five per cent of which came 
from tuition fees. It was spent in large part for salaries. A smaller 
sum was spent for maintenance of the school buildings, equipment, 
and supplies. On the whole there should be more money appro- 
priated for secondary education, although it should at the same time 
constitute a smaller proportion of the total spent on public instruc- 
tion than is the case at present. The objects towards which this 
increase could be devoted advantageously include: (1) adequate 
buildings and equipment; (2) pay of professors; (3) extension of 
commercial education in various national colegios. 

There is need for greater elasticity in the courses open to stu- 
dents in the colegio. The law of 1901, in providing the liceos, 
sought to attain this end. The financial condition of the country, 
however, does not justify separate schools. Separate departments 
within the colegio should be provided along the lines of the organi- 
zation in our high schools. 

The establishment of a commercial department in the leading 
colegio of the country is a step in the right direction. After the 
adoption of a well-considered plan providing separate departments 
for the colegio, the government should make an earnest effort to 
encourage a larger proportion of the students to attend the national 
colegios than is the case at present. As it is, the national colegio is 
superior to the private colegio from almost every point of view and 
yet for one reason or another about forty per cent of the total num- 
ber of students are attending private colegios. It is a fact of some 
significance that there is no national colegio for girls in Lima, and 
that there are only three in the country. 

Higher Education 

The universities of Peru include the University of St. Mark in 
Lima, founded 1571 by Pius X and royal decree of Philip II, and 
the "minor" universities of Cuzco, Arequipa and Trujillo. These 
were established in 1692, 1835 and 1824 respectively. The univer- 
sity of Cuzco was closed temporarily last year owing to certain 
irregularities. The occasion gave rise to a sharp discussion at the 

(6/9) 



102 The Annals of the American Academy 

recent regular session of Congress, and the executive was given 
power to provide for the reorganization of the university. It will 
probably be a matter of two or three years when Congress will re- 
vise the law affecting higher education. 

The University of St. Mark has six faculties — theology, juris- 
prudence, medicine, natural and mathematical sciences, letters, and 
political and administrative sciences. The University of Cuzco has 
faculties of jurisprudence, letters, political and administrative 
sciences, and a "section" or partial faculty of natural science. The 
other two have these same faculties with the exception of the last 
mentioned. 

University instruction is controlled by the state, but there is 
more autonomy in higher education than in secondary or primary in- 
struction. The administration of each university is under the im- 
mediate jurisdiction of a University Council. Its duties are similar 
in nature to those of the board of trustees in our large private uni- 
versities. For Lima, it consists of the rector, the vice-rector, the 
secretary, the deans of the various faculties and another delegate 
from each faculty. The delegates are elected by the professors of 
the respective faculties. In the other universities the Council in- 
cludes all of the professors. The Council administers the property 
of the university, approves the annual budget, authorizes special 
expenditure, provides for auditing of accounts, acts upon the propo- 
sals of the rector for the better administration of the institution ; 
formulates the by-laws, creates or changes courses and professor- 
ships, proposes to the Superior Council of Public Instruction changes 
deemed essential in granting university degrees — bachelor or doctor. 

The rector of the university must have a doctor's degree, and 
although appointed as a rule for four years, may succeed himself. 
He and the vice-rector are normally elected by the University Coun- 
cil, except the University of St. Mark, where only the deans of the 
faculties make the selection. The rector is responsible for the 
administration and progress of the university, and acts as the inter- 
mediary in communication with the Minister of Education. Each 
faculty elects its own dean and sub-dean, formulates its budget 
which it submits later to the University Council, examines candidates 
for degrees, approves the outline of studies for each course, author- 
izes payment by the dean of sums exceeding $50, and makes sug- 
gestions with reference to the curriculum. There are two grades of 

(680) 



Public Instruction in Peru 103 

professors, viz., principal or active professors, and adjunct profes- 
sors who replace the former in case of leave of absence. The lat- 
ter receive a salary only during the time that they teach. The active 
professors are of two classes, and include those who are named ad 
interim and those who secure the position through competitive exam- 
ination. They must have the doctor's degree. As a rule they have 
less than ten hours of actual teaching per week ; moreover, they are 
almost invariably engaged in other lines of activity outside of uni- 
versity circles. The courses within a given faculty are usually ar- 
ranged in groups, and the professor must teach all the subjects 
within a given group. No professor is permitted to give courses in 
more than two of these groups. At the University of Arequipa, 
for example, one group includes courses on diplomacy, private in- 
ternational law, and history of the treaties of Peru. The law of 
1901 provides the courses which are to be given ; the arrangement in 
groups is left to administrative authority. 

Students can matriculate in the University upon graduating 
from the colegio. 

To secure a degree in the faculty of theology requires six years 
of study; in jurisprudence, five years; medicine, seven years; 
sciences, letters, or political and administrative sciences, three years. 
These are required for both degrees, viz., bachelor and doctor. A 
student is permitted to register in several faculties, under certain 
restrictions. In order to matriculate in the faculties of jurispru- 
dence and political sciences a student must have completed two 
years in the faculty of letters. For example, he may matriculate in 
the faculty of political and administrative sciences, as a regular 
student, and also in the faculty of letters to pursue special or 
regular advanced courses. 21 

With the exception of the University of St. Mark, the univer- 
sities have little property of their own from which they may secure 
revenue. Hence most of their income comes from the state sub- 
ventions. In 1908 the income for all four universties amounted 
only to a third of a million dollars. Of this total, matriculation fees 
furnished sixteen per cent of the total income of the University of 
St. Mark ; fifteen per cent in the University of Arequipa ; twenty-five 
per cent in the University of Cuzco ; and thirty per cent in the Uni- 

M Annual Report, Minister of Education, 1908. 

(681) 



104 The Annals of the American Academy 

versity of Trujillo. In other words, about one-fifth of the total in- 
come comes from tuition fees. 

Besides the four universities, there are three other national in- 
stitutions of superior instruction, viz., the Engineering School, the 
Agricultural College, and the School of Industrial Arts — all located 
in Lima. The first of these institutions has the following depart- 
ments : (a) preparatory section requiring two years, with emphasis 
on natural and mathematical sciences; (b) department of civil 
engineering, 3 years; (c) of mining engineering, 3 years; (d) of 
mechanical engineering, 3 years; (e) of electrical engineering, 1 
year. 

The Agricultural and Veterinary College also has a preparatory 
section of one year, with special emphasis on natural sciences. The 
regular work of the Agricultural College requires three more years 
of study. In addition to these studies, there is a special Grange 
School giving a two-years' course along specialized lines. 

The School of Industrial Arts, as in the case of the former two 
institutions, also has a preparatory section, with the view to review- 
ing the work of the primary education. Hence, in reality, this school 
cannot properly be classed as an institution of superior education. 
After the preparatory work, specialized work is given along lines 
of manual training and industrial arts. 

Space will not permit a review of the various problems which 
need attention in a revision of the educational system of the country. 
Some of the defects have been mentioned in the article, but what is 
especially needed is a change in the administrative machinery under 
a new law of Congress which shall re-organize the work of public 
instruction on a permanent basis. The country is ready for this 
change, and a special commission established by supreme decree last 
April will present a project to Congress. It is certain that it will 
contain radical changes, but it is not so certain that Congress will 
accept these. 



(682) 



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Social Legislation and Activity 
Problems in Charities and Corrections 
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Social Work of the Church 
Political Problems 

Municipal Ownership and Municipal Fran- 
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Control of Municipal Public Service Corpor 

tions 
City Life and Progress 
Insurance 

Insurance and Commercial Organization 
Business Management, Vols. I and II 
Business Professions 
American Business Conditions 
Industrial Education 
Bonds as Investment Securities 
Stocks and the Stock Market 
Lessons of the Financial Crisis 
Banking Problems 
Labor Problems, Vols. I and II 
The Improvement of Labor Conditions is the 

United States 
Labor and Wages 
The Settlement of Labor Disputes 
American Waterways 
Regulation of the Liquor Traffic 
Conservation of Natural Resources 
Chinese and Japanese in America 
The New South 
Public Recreation Facilities 



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